With global efforts to protect 30% of the ocean through marine protected areas (MPAs) by 2030, large-scale MPAs (LSMPAs)—those exceeding 100,000 km²—are an increasing focus. While research on MPAs’ impacts on human well-being has mostly concentrated on small, coastal areas, LSMPAs, despite their remote locations, also affect people. This study reviews existing literature on LSMPAs to assess their impact on human well-being using the 4-C well-being framework, which categorizes well-being as it relates to people’s connections, context, capabilities, and cross-cutting issues (Breslow et al. 2016).
The most commonly examined outcomes included political participation, collaboration, perceived LSMPA legitimacy, conflict, and public support. In contrast, topics such as ecosystem services, disaster preparedness, infrastructure, leisure time, and pollution received little attention. Notably, no studies addressed emotional and mental health, physical health, safety, peace and security, or public services, leaving significant gaps in understanding LSMPAs’ impacts.
Of the 44 designated LSMPAs worldwide, only 18 had studies evaluating their effects on human well-being and were largely concentrated in well-funded, long-established LSMPAs such as the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, Galápagos Marine Reserve, and Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. Overall, these studies show mixed human well-being outcomes. Over half of the outcomes studied showed positive effects, while 42% had negative effects and 6% showed no change. Notably, impacts on commercial fishers were more often negative, and Indigenous communities reported the most positive outcomes.
The research also highlighted key differences between LSMPAs and smaller coastal MPAs. Despite their remote locations, LSMPAs can hold deep cultural significance for Indigenous communities, helping preserve traditional knowledge and heritage. Additionally, some nations use LSMPAs within their distant exclusive economic zones (EEZs) to assert sovereignty, enhance surveillance, and curb illegal fishing, which can, in turn, bolster food security and support domestic fisheries.
Critical gaps remain, and further research is needed to assess LSMPAs’ impacts on local communities and examine how factors such as race, gender, social class, and cultural identity shape human well-being outcomes.
Implications for managers
- Engage stakeholders early. Work with relevant groups before LSMPA designation to identify potential human impacts, both positive and negative.
- Develop culturally relevant indicators. Create well-being measures that reflect local values across relevant groups.
- Conduct baseline studies. Establish benchmarks before LSMPA designation to track changes over time.
- Integrate human well-being into management. Include social and economic factors in LSMPA planning and decision-making.
- Monitor and adapt. Regularly assess human well-being outcomes and adjust management strategies to minimize negative impacts and enhance benefits.
Author: Baker, D, N.J. Bennett and N.C. Ban
Year: 2025
Marine Policy 173:106579. doi: 10.1016/j.marpol.2024.106579
This article summary was developed in partnership with the Blue Nature Alliance, a global partnership to catalyze effective large-scale ocean conservation.
