MPA Enforcement
MPA Monitoring, Control, Surveillance, and Enforcement (MCS&E)
Marine protected areas (MPAs) are essential for conserving marine biodiversity, ensuring sustainable fisheries, and maintaining the health of ocean ecosystems. They also provide economic and cultural benefits, including ecotourism opportunities and the preservation of livelihoods for coastal communities. However, merely establishing an MPA is generally insufficient to secure these protections and benefits.
To achieve their ecological, socio-economic, and cultural objectives, MPAs must have good governance, be well-designed and well-planned, be actively and equitably managed, and address threats. In other words, they must be effectively managed. This toolkit addresses enforcement as a critical component of effective MPA management.
MPA enforcement ensures compliance with regulations designed to protect marine habitats and resources. Effective enforcement addresses illegal activities such as poaching, overfishing, and habitat destruction, all of which can undermine the conservation and other goals of an MPA. Enforcement responses or activities will vary depending on community engagement, as well as the variety and severity of threats being faced by an MPA. Without robust enforcement mechanisms, even the most well-designed MPAs may fail. ref
Integrating compliance strategies within MPA and broader management systems offers an opportunity to reduce the need for enforcement actions. Strategies that prioritize compliance management—including outreach, education, and behavioral approaches—can foster desired behaviors among stakeholders, making the system more balanced, cost-effective, and sustainable. This approach complements enforcement by encouraging voluntary adherence to regulations, freeing resources to focus on more severe or non-compliant activities.
As shown in the chart below, there are different levels of compliance that should be met by appropriate responses (i.e., utilizing an enforcement strategy that matches the severity of the non-compliant behavior):
An "enforcement pyramid" showing the connection of types of violation to various enforcement actions. Image source: © State of New South Wales through the Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development, NSW Resources, 2025.
This approach acknowledges that enforcement itself is one part of a larger system, collectively known as Monitoring, Control, Surveillance, & Enforcement (MCS&E). Listen to the Reef Exchanges podcast episode below for an introduction to Monitoring, Control, Surveillance, & Enforcement:
MCS&E Components
Monitoring tracks the conditions and trends of marine populations, habitats, ecosystems, and other indicators, helping to understand their change over time. It provides an empirical basis against which protection and enforcement efforts can be measured. This includes monitoring the size and composition of fish populations, as well as fisheries activities such as catch composition and fishing operations. ref Visit the Monitoring and Assessment toolkit to learn more.
To effectively implement a monitoring strategy, it is important to integrate a combination of technological tools, field expertise, and ongoing assessments to ensure that data collected are accurate, relevant, and aligned with management objectives. Examples of monitoring tools include remote sensing, acoustic monitoring, and field surveys.
Fish caught by the fishermen on Tetap Setia, a boat participating in TNC's FishFace program, are photographed on a measuring board off the coast of Kema, North Sulawesi, Indonesia. Photo © Ed Wray
Control refers to the regulatory conditions under which resources may be harvested or used. It helps establish clear rules and governance frameworks that can guide MPA management, ensuring activities within the area align with conservation goals. ref These control frameworks help regulate resource extraction, human activities, and other uses of an area to minimize ecological impacts.
Key considerations when implementing control strategies in MPAs include implementing clear and enforceable regulations (e.g., permitting systems), and engaging local stakeholders in the planning process, to ensure that control measures balance conservation with social and economic goals.
Sport fishers on a pier inshore from the Mesoamerican Reef, Puerto Morales, Mexico. Photo © Lisette Poole
Surveillance observes and tracks usage behaviors in an MPA, to ensure that users remain in compliance with fishing, tourism, or other regulations. Surveillance often utilizes tools like satellite imagery, drones, and patrol boats, but can be as simple as someone standing on shore with a pair of binoculars. The goal of surveillance is to both detect potential threats and deter illegal actions. ref
The complexity and extent of technologies required for surveillance also greatly depend on the size of an MPA and the scope of its regulations. It is important to use appropriate technologies and to maintain a balance between technological capabilities and available resources, so that surveillance efforts are properly integrated with enforcement and response systems.
TNC personnel assist local pilots in conducting drone surveillance in Haiti. Photo © Tim Calver
Enforcement addresses violations such as illegal fishing, habitat destruction, wildlife harassment, unauthorized access, pollution, and non-compliance with MPA regulations. These violations are addressed through legal measures or community-based actions, ensuring that established rules and governance for a protected area are followed, and that illegal actions have appropriate consequences. ref
When implementing enforcement strategies, it is essential to ensure enforcement officers have the legal authority, proper training, and necessary resources to respond to violations effectively. Establishing coordination protocols between management and law enforcement agencies can enhance enforcement efforts.
Rangers on patrol, Palau. Photo © OneReef
Integrating an MCS&E System
Integrating MCS&E components is crucial for successful MPA management. These four components should function as an adaptive, interconnected system to ensure adequate protection and promote the long-term sustainability of MPAs. ref
An adaptive MCS&E system can adjust strategies and policies in order to respond to evolving challenges and threats (e.g., increases in illegal fishing or shifts in fish populations). Managers can assess the impact of their MCS&E strategies by monitoring socio-ecological outcomes and checking them against site objectives. To support these efforts, collaboration with stakeholders—including government agencies, NGOs, and local communities—is necessary to establish a clear and enforceable control framework to strengthen enforcement initiatives.
This approach can be further enhanced by integrating both high-tech and low-tech surveillance solutions, such as remote sensing, autonomous vehicles, and satellite monitoring for offshore coverage, alongside binoculars and watchtowers for effective on-the-ground observations in nearshore and coastal MPAs. Enforcement contributes to compliance with MPA regulations by combining presence with legal actions against non-compliant activities to deter violations and support the ecological and operational health of protected areas. ref
“We should strengthen our abilities in the integration of information. For example, we must be able to integrate everything into something centralized that helps us identify the dynamics at play in the territory. We need to be able to provide key, summarized information that helps decision-making.”
COMMON MCS&E CHALLENGES
- Funding and resource limitations: budget shortfalls, inadequate infrastructure, and limited workforce capacity hinder effective monitoring and enforcement.
- Governance and political will: weak enforcement, fragmented governance, and lack of political commitment reduce MCS&E effectiveness.
- Community and economic pressures: local fishing industries, subsistence fishers, and community resistance create conflicts with conservation efforts.
- Compliance and enforcement capacity: low national compliance rates, high illegal activity rates (i.e. IUU fishing), and insufficient trained personnel weaken MPA protections.
- Data and monitoring gaps: inadequate data collection, monitoring capacity, and technology limit informed decision-making.
“Have the will and integrity to face challenges. No salary can compensate for the effort needed. Discipline is essential—both professionally and personally—because the community is watching.”
The MPA Enforcement Toolkit was developed in partnership with the Blue Nature Alliance, a global partnership to catalyze effective large-scale ocean conservation, and WildAid, a US-based non-governmental organization with over 20 years of on-the-water experience in marine enforcement. Additional insights and resources were provided by our friends at Conservation International, MPAConnect, MedPAN, and One Reef.
Resources
WildAid: Marine Protection System
OceanMind: Approach to monitoring, control, and surveillance
MedPAN: Surveillance and Enforcement of Regulations in Mediterranean MPAs: A Practical Guide
Protected Planet: The MPA Guide
The International Monitoring, Control, and Surveillance Network
United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization: Fishery Monitoring, Control, and Surveillance